Antheropogenic Impacts of Fertilizers on Environment

INTRODUCTION

Fertilizer is a substance added to soil to improve plants' growth and yield. First used by ancient farmers, fertilizer technology developed significantly as the chemical needs of growing plants were discovered. Modern synthetic fertilizers are composed mainly of nitrogen, phosphorous, and potassium compounds with secondary nutrients added. The use of synthetic fertilizers has significantly improved the quality and quantity of the food available today, although their long-term use is debated by environmentalists.

Like all living organisms, plants are made up of cells. Within these cells occur numerous metabolic chemical reactions that are responsible for growth and reproduction. Since plants do not eat food like animals, they depend on nutrients in the soil to provide the basic chemicals for these metabolic reactions. The supply of these components in soil is limited, however, and as plants are harvested, it dwindles, causing a reduction in the quality and yield of plants.

Fertilizers replace the chemical components that are taken from the soil by growing plants. However, they are also designed to improve the growing potential of soil, and fertilizers can create a better growing environment than natural soil. They can also be tailored to suit the type of crop that is being grown. Typically, fertilizers are composed of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium compounds. They also contain trace elements that improve the growth of plants.

The primary components in fertilizers are nutrients which are vital for plant growth. Plants use nitrogen in the synthesis of proteins, nucleic acids, and hormones. When plants are nitrogen deficient, they are marked by reduced growth and yellowing of leaves. Plants also need phosphorus, a component of nucleic acids, phospholipids, and several proteins. It is also necessary to provide the energy to drive metabolic chemical reactions. Without enough phosphorus, plant growth is reduced. Potassium is another major substance that plants get from the soil. It is used in protein synthesis and other key plant processes. Yellowing, spots of dead tissue, and weak stems and roots are all indicative of plants that lack enough potassium.

Calcium, magnesium, and sulfur are also important materials in plant growth. They are only included in fertilizers in small amounts, however, since most soils naturally contain enough of these components. Other materials are needed in relatively small amounts for plant growth. These micronutrients include iron, chlorine, copper, manganese, zinc, molybdenum, and boron, which primarily function as cofactors in enzymatic reactions. While they may be present in small amounts, these compounds are no less important to growth, and without them plants can die.

Many different substances are used to provide the essential nutrients needed for an effective fertilizer. These compounds can be mined or isolated from naturally occurring sources. Examples include sodium nitrate, seaweed, bones, guano, potash, and phosphate rock. Compounds can also be chemically synthesized from basic raw materials. These would include such things as ammonia, urea, nitric acid, and ammonium phosphate. Since these compounds exist in a number of physical states, fertilizers can be sold as solids, liquids, or slurries.

HISTORY

The process of adding substances to soil to improve its growing capacity was developed in the early days of agriculture. Ancient farmers knew that the first yields on a plot of land were much better than those of subsequent years. This caused them to move to new, uncultivated areas, which again showed the same pattern of reduced yields over time. Eventually it was discovered that plant growth on a plot of land could be improved by spreading animal manure throughout the soil.

Over time, fertilizer technology became more refined. New substances that improved the growth of plants were discovered. The Egyptians are known to have added ashes from burned weeds to soil. Ancient Greek and Roman writings indicate that various animal excrements were used, depending on the type of soil or plant grown. It was also known by this time that growing leguminous plants on plots prior to growing wheat was beneficial. Other types of materials added include sea-shells, clay, vegetable waste, waste from different manufacturing processes, and other assorted trash.

Organized research into fertilizer technology began in the early seventeenth century. Early scientists such as Francis Bacon and Johann Glauber describe the beneficial effects of the addition of saltpeter to soil. Glauber developed the first complete mineral fertilizer, which was a mixture of saltpeter, lime, phosphoric acid, nitrogen, and potash. As scientific chemical theories developed, the chemical needs of plants were discovered, which led to improved fertilizer compositions. Organic chemist Justus von Liebig demonstrated that plants need mineral elements such as nitrogen and phosphorous in order to grow. The chemical fertilizer industry could be said to have its beginnings with a patent issued to Sir John Lawes, which outlined a method for producing a form of phosphate that was an effective fertilizer. The synthetic fertilizer industry experienced significant growth after the First World War, when facilities that had produced ammonia and synthetic nitrates for explosives were converted to the production of nitrogen-based fertilizers.

TYPES OF CHEMICAL FERTILIZERS

The different types of chemical fertilizers are usually classified according to the three principal elements, namely Nitrogen (N), Phosphorous (P) and Potassium (K), and may, therefore, be included in more than one group.

Nitrogenous Fertilizer Types

This type of fertilizer is divided into different groups according to the manner in which the Nitrogen combines with other elements. These groups are:

Ammonium Sulphate

This fertilizer type comes in a white crystalline salt form, containing 20 to 21% ammonia cal nitrogen. This fertilizer type is soluble in water; its nitrogen is not readily lost in drainage, because the ammonium ion is retained by the soil particles. A note of caution: Ammonium sulphate may have an acid effect on garden soil. Over time, the long-continued use of this type of fertilizer will increase soil acidity and thus lower the yield. The application of Ammonium sulphate fertilizer can be done before sowing, at sowing time, or even as a top-dressing to the growing crop.

Ammonium Nitrate

This fertilizer type also comes in white crystalline salts. Ammonium Nitrate salts contains 33 to 35% nitrogen, of which half is nitrate nitrogen and the other half in the ammonium form. As part of the ammonium form, this type of fertilizer cannot be easily leached from the soil. This fertilizer is quick-acting, but highly hygroscopic thus making it unfit for storage. On a note of caution: Ammonium Nitrate also has an acid effect on the soil.

Ammonium Sulphate Nitrate

This fertilizer type is available as a mixture of ammonium nitrate and ammonium sulphate and is recognizable as a white crystal or as dirty-white granules.  Ammonium Sulphate Nitrate is non-explosive, readily soluble in water and is very quick-acting. Because this type of fertilizer keeps well, it is very useful for all crops. Though it can also render garden soil acidic, the acidifying effects is only one-half of that of ammonium sulphate on garden soil. Application of this fertilizer type can be done before sowing, at sowing time or as a top-dressing, but it should not be applied along the seed.

Urea

This type of fertilizer usually is available to the public in a white, crystalline, organic form. It is a highly concentrated nitrogenous fertilizer and fairly hygroscopic. Urea is also produced in granular or pellet forms and is coated with a non-hygroscopic inert material. It is highly soluble in water and therefore, subject to rapid leaching. It is, however, quick-acting and produces quick results. When applied to the soil, its nitrogen is rapidly changed into ammonia. Application of Urea as fertilizer can be done at sowing time or as a top-dressing, but should not be allowed to come into contact with the seed.

Ammonia

This fertilizer type is a gas that is made up of about 80% of nitrogen and comes in a liquid form Ammonia can be applied by introducing it into irrigation water, or directly into the soil from special containers. Use of ammonia as a fertilizer is very expensive.

Phosphate Fertilizer Types

The Phosphate fertilizers are categorized as natural phosphates, either treated or processed, and also by products of phosphates and chemical phosphates.

Rock Phosphate

As a type of fertilizer, rock phosphate occurs as natural deposits in some countries. Powdered phosphate fertilizer is an excellent remedy for soils that are acidic and has a phosphorous deficiency and requires soil amendments. However, the disadvantage is that although phosphate fertilizer such as rock phosphate contains 25 to 35% phosphoric acid, the phosphorous is insoluble in water. It has to be pulverized to be used as a type of fertilizer before rendering satisfactory results in garden soil.

Super phosphate

Super phosphate is a fertilizer type that most gardeners are familiar with. As a fertilizer type one can get super phosphate in three different grades, depending on the manufacturing process. The following is a short description of the different super phosphate fertilizer grades:

·         Single super phosphate containing 16 to 20% phosphoric acid;

• Dicalcium phosphate containing 35 to 38% phosphoric acid; and
• Triple super phosphate containing 44 to 49% phosphoric acid.

Triple super phosphate is used mostly in the manufacture of concentrated mixed fertilizer types. All garden soil types can benefit from the application of Super phosphate as a fertilizer. Used in conjunction with an organic fertilizer, it should be applied at sowing or transplant time.

Bone-meal

 Bone-meal is used as a phosphate fertilizer type and is available in two types: raw and steamed. The raw bone-meal contains 4% organic Nitrogen that is slow acting, and 20 to 25% phosphoric acid that is not soluble in water. The steamed bone-meal on the other hand has all the fats, greases, nitrogen and glue-making substances removed as a result of high pressure steaming. But it is more brittle and can be ground into a powder form. In powder form this fertilizer is of great advantage to the gardener in that the rate of availability of the phosphoric acid depends on its pulverization. This fertilizer is particularly suitable as a soil amendment for acid soil and should be applied either at sowing time or even a few days prior to sowing.

Potassium fertilizer types

Chemical Potassium fertilizer should only be added when there is absolute certainty that there is a Potassium deficiency in your garden soil. Potassium fertilizers also work well in sandy garden soil that responds to their application. Crops such as chilies, potato and fruit trees all benefit from this type of fertilizer since it improves the quality and appearance of the produce. There are basically two different types of potassium fertilizers:

• Muriate of potash (Potassium chloride) and
• Sulphate of potash (Potassium sulphate).

Muriate of Potash

Muriate of potash is a gray crystal type of fertilizer that consists of 50 to 60% potash. All the potash in this fertilizer type is readily available to plants because it is highly soluble in water. Even so, it does not leach away deep into the soil since the potash is absorbed on the colloidal surfaces.

Sulphate of Potash

Sulphate of potash is a fertilizer type manufactured when potassium chloride is treated with magnesium sulphate. It dissolves readily in water and can be applied to the garden soil at any time up to sowing. Some gardeners prefer using sulphate of potash over muriate of potash.

Organic fertilizers ('natural' fertilizer)

Naturally occurring organic fertilizers include manure, worm castings, peat moss, seaweed, sewage and guano. Sewage sludge use in organic agricultural operations in the U.S. has been extremely limited and rare due to USDA prohibition of the practice (due to toxic metal accumulation, among other factors)

Cover crops may are also grown to enrich soil as a green manure through nitrogen fixation from the atmosphere by bacterial nodules on roots); as well as phosphorus (through nutrient mobilization) content of soils.

Processed organic fertilizers from natural sources include compost (from green waste), blood meal and bone meal(from organic meat production facilities), and seaweed extracts (alginates and others).

Mixed definitions of 'organic'

There can be confusion as to the veracity of the term 'organic' when applied to agricultural systems and fertilizer. The problem is one of confusion of terminology between agricultural and chemical disciplines.

Minerals such as mined rock phosphate, sulfate of potash and limestone are also considered organic fertilizers, although they contain no organic (carbon) molecules. Some ambiguity in the usage of the term organic exists; however, it is simple to differentiate with a separation between the scientific and colloquial uses

Synthetic fertilizers, such as urea and urea formaldehyde, are organic in the sense of the organic chemistry definition of organic, can be supplied organically (agriculturally), but when manufactured as a pure chemical is not organic under organic certification standards^.

Naturally mined powdered limestone, mined rock phosphate and sodium nitrate, are inorganic (in a chemical sense) in that they contain no carbon molecules, and are energetically-intensive to harvest, but are approved for organic agriculture in minimal amounts^.

Benefits of organic fertilizer

However, by their nature, organic fertilizers provide increased physical and biological storage mechanisms to soils, mitigating risks of over-fertilization. Organic fertilizer nutrient content, solubility, and nutrient release rates are typically much lower than mineral (inorganic) fertilizers. One study found that over a 140-day period,

• Organic fertilizers had released between 25% and 60% of their nitrogen content
• Controlled release fertilizers(CRFs) had a relatively constant rate of release
• Soluble fertilizer released most of its nitrogen content at the first leaching

Disadvantages of organic fertilizer

It is difficult to chemically distinguish between urea of biological origin and those produced synthetically. It is possible to over-apply organic fertilizers.

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF FERTILIZERS

Fertilizers contribute to the variety, abundance, and low cost of food stuffs available to the public. However, fertilizer misuse can lower air, soil, and water quality.

Impacts of Intensive Farming on Soil and Water Resources:

Damage to Soil:

Soil erosion from farmland threatens the productivity of agricultural fields and causes a number of problems elsewhere in the environment. Agricultural topsoil takes up to 300 years for 1 inch to form, soil that is lost is essentially irreplaceable. The amount of erosion varies considerably from one field to another, depending on soil type, slope of the field, drainage patterns, and crop management practices; and the effects of the erosion vary also. Areas with deep organic loams are better able to sustain erosion without loss of productivity than are areas where topsoils are shallower.

·         Erosion affects productivity because it removes the surface soils, containing most of the organic matter, plant nutrients, and fine soil particles, which help to retain water and nutrients in the root zone where they are available to plants.

·         The effects of erosion are also felt elsewhere in the environment. A recent study estimated the off-site cost of cropland erosion in the United States to be in the range of a billion dollars per year (Clark, Haverkamp, and Chapman 1985).

·         The eroded soils contain nutrients and other chemicals that are beneficial on farm fields, but can impair water quality when carried away by erosion. As a result, drinking water supplies may contain nitrate or organic chemicals in concentrations that exceed public health standards or surface waters may become clogged with excessive plant growth from the added nutrients.

·         Even when soil erosion is not excessive, intensive agriculture can impair soil quality by depleting the natural supplies of trace elements and organic matter.

Contamination of Water:

·         Farming is one potential source of such contamination. Surface runoff carries manure, fertilizers, and pesticides into streams, lakes, and reservoirs, in some cases causing unacceptable levels of bacteria, nutrients, or synthetic organic compounds.

·         Similarly, water percolating downward through farm fields carries with it dissolved chemicals, which can include nitrate fertilizers and soluble pesticides. In sufficient quantities these can contaminate groundwater supplies.

·         Eroded soil clogs streams, rivers, lakes, and reservoirs, resulting in increased flooding, decreased reservoir capacity, and destruction of habitats for many species of fish and other aquatic life.

·         Nutrients are lost from agricultural fields through runoff, drainage, or attachment to eroded soil particles. The amounts lost depend on the soil type and organic matter content, the climate, slope of the land, and depth to groundwater, as well as on the amount and type of fertilizer and irrigation used.

·         Leaching of nitrate from agricultural fields can elevate concentrations in underlying groundwater to levels unacceptable for drinking water quality. In the Suffolk County area of Long Island, for example, almost 10 percent of private wells tested for nitrate exceed the 10 mg/l drinking water standard.

·         Phosphorus is carried with eroded soil into surface water bodies where it may cause excessive growth of aquatic plants. If this process precedes far enough, lakes and reservoirs become choked with decaying mats of algae, which have offensive odors and can cause fish kills from the resulting lack of dissolved oxygen.

Eutrophication:

The most complete global study of eutrophication was the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) Cooperative Programme on Eutrophication carried out in the 1970s.Although both nitrogen and phosphorus contributes to eutrophication. The symptoms and impacts of eutrophication are:

• Increase in production and biomass of phytoplankton, attached algae, and macrophytes.

·         Production of toxins by certain algae.

·         Increasing operating expenses of public water supplies, including taste and odour problems, especially during periods of algal blooms.

·         Deoxygenation of water, especially after collapse of algal blooms, usually resulting in fish kills.

·         Infilling and clogging of irrigation canals with aquatic weeds.

·         Economic loss due to change in fish species, fish kills, etc.

Problems with Organic fertilizers

Major problems are associated with organic fertilizers. Manure produced by cattle, pigs and poultry are used as organic fertilizer the world over. Intensive livestock production has produced major problems of environmental degradation in the Eastern and Southern parts of the Netherlands.

· Surface waters and the groundwater are being contaminated by heavy metals. High concentrations of these substances pose a threat to the health of man and animals. To a certain extent these heavy metals accumulate in the soil, from which they are taken up by crops. For example, pig manure contains significant quantities of copper.

· Acidification as a result of ammonia emission (volatilization) from livestock accommodation, manure storage facilities, and manure being spread on the land. Ammonia constitutes a major contribution to the acidification of the environment, especially in areas with considerable intensive livestock farming.

Environmental Implications of Fertilizer Mismanagement:

When nutrients and other pollutants associated with animal manures and commercial fertilizers are not managed properly, they can affect plant and animal life (including humans) negatively. Some of these impacts include algae blooms causing the depletion of oxygen in surface waters, pathogens and nitrates in drinking water, and the emission of odors and gases into the air.

Oxygen depletion:

When manure or commercial fertilizers enter surface water, the nutrients they release stimulate microorganism growth. The growth and reproduction of these microorganisms will reduce the dissolved oxygen content of the water body.

Without sufficient dissolved oxygen in surface water, fish and other aquatic species suffocate. The resulting dead fish degrade the water quality and cause unpleasant odors.

Weed growth and algae blooms:

The number of plants and algae in a lake, pond or other water body increase with an increased supply of nutrients, particularly nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P). The nutrient present in the least amount for growth will limit the production in the aquatic system. However, increased production of aquatic plants and algae is not healthy for water resources. For example, 1 extra pound of P in a lake can produce hundreds of pounds of weeds and algae that compete with other aquatics for oxygen. Eutrophication is the term used to describe the natural or human accelerated process whereby a water body becomes abundant in aquatic plants and low in oxygen content.

Health effects:

In addition to oxygen depletion, there is potential that the algae can be toxic. Blue-green algae (cyano-bacteria) can cause rashes, nausea and respiratory problems in humans and has been documented to kill livestock that drink from affected water storage.

Ammonia toxicity:

Ammonia-contaminated runoff from fresh manure application sites is toxic to aquatic life. At high enough levels, ammonia in surface water will kill fish. Fish are relatively sensitive to ammonia in water. Concentrations as low as 0.02 parts per million (ppm) may be lethal.

Fecal organisms:

The fresh manure from warm-blooded animals has countless microorganisms, including bacteria, viruses, parasites and fungi. Some of the organisms are pathogenic (disease causing).If manure applications are mismanaged near wells, the risk of bacterial contamination of the groundwater via the well is greatly increased. Therefore, avoid surface application of manure where it can come into direct contact with a well or other drinking water supply.

Nitrates in drinking water:

High levels of nitrates in drinking water are known to cause methemoglobinemia (blue-baby syndrome) in human infants and other warm-blooded animals. In human infants, the nitrate is ingested, usually in water used to mix formula, and nitrate-reducing bacteria in the upper gastrointestinal system convert it to nitrite. The nitrite, in turn, interferes with the uptake and movement of oxygen throughout the body. The pale, bluish color of the infant's skin is the result of oxygen deprivation.

Odors and gases:

Manure odors can be a nuisance for nearby neighbors and communities. Constant nuisance odors can degrade the "quality of life" for anyone.

Gases are emitted from facilities throughout the year, but are released at the highest rates during agitation, pumping and application of liquid manure systems or during cleanout and application of solid manure systems. Volatilization of ammonia to the atmosphere may become a water quality problem near animal production facilities when it is returned to the earth dissolved in rainfall. (http://www.ag.ndsu.edu/pubs)

Global Ethical Issues

The growth of the world's population to its current figure has only been possible through intensification of agriculture associated with the use of fertilizers. There is an impact on the sustainable consumption of other global resources as a consequence.

The use of fertilizers on a global scale emits significant quantities of greenhouse gas into the atmosphere. Emissions come about through the use of:

·   animal manures and urea, which release methane, nitrous oxide, ammonia, and carbon dioxide in varying quantities depending on their form (solid or liquid) and management (collection, storage, spreading)

·   fertilizers that use nitric acid or ammonium bicarbonate, the production and application of which results in emissions of nitrogen oxides, nitrous oxide, ammonia and carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.

By changing processes and procedures, it is possible to mitigate some, but not all, of these effects on anthropogenic climate change.

The nitrogen-rich compounds found in fertilizer run-off are the primary cause of a serious depletion of oxygen in many parts of the ocean, especially in coastal zones; the resulting lack of dissolved oxygen is greatly reducing the ability of these areas to sustain oceanic fauna.

 Fertilizing Alternatives

Fertilizers contain nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium, and other elements that help build strong roots and plants.  But as the saying goes, too much of a good thing can be bad. 

Many of us unknowingly waste time and money by putting too much of the wrong kind of fertilizer on our landscapes, often at the wrong times.  This is partially because our soil is not properly balanced (that is, it’s too acidic or alkaline) to allow plants to absorb the nutrients they need in the first place.  Not only does your lawn and wallet suffer, but so does the environment.

Generally speaking, lawns need much less fertilizer than is advertised.  Fertilizers that are not immediately absorbed by plants in our landscapes end up polluting our water through storm water runoff.  These excess nutrients either leach through the soil to the groundwater or they are washed by rain into storm drains that lead to the nearest water body.  These nutrients can contaminate our drinking water and cause rapid alga growth in ponds and bays.  Alga blooms not only make swimming and boating unpleasant, but also block sunlight and deplete oxygen, killing fish and other animals.  

Save time and money by following these helpful guidelines to provide your lawn with all the nutrients it needs to be healthy, beautiful, and easy to maintain.

Add lime if your soil is acidic:

Soil’s pH should be between 6.0 and 7.0 for a healthy lawn.  Most landowners will find that their soil’s pH is below 7, which means it is acidic.  Acidic soil is more hospitable to weeds than grass because it prevents nutrient absorption.  Adding lime will remedy this problem. To raise your soil’s pH one point, use a mechanical spreader to evenly broadcast 40 pounds of palletized lime per 1000 square feet of grass.

Leave grass clippings on the lawn:

Mulching mowers create fine grass clippings that will break down and add nitrogen and organic matter to the soil.  Leaving grass clippings on the lawn over the season provides the equivalent of one regular fertilizer application, and will not cause thatch.  Take advantage of this free natural fertilizer and let nature do the work!

Top dress with compost:

If soil analysis shows that lawn needs nutrients, a thin layer of compost (1/4” or less) will provide most of what your soil needs.  Compost also adds organic materials that help the soil retain moisture. The best time to treat your lawn with compost is in the spring, by using a wheelbarrow, shovel and lawn rake.

If necessary, use organic fertilizers.  For this, be sure to: (1) use an organic, slow-release, water-insoluble fertilizer at the recommended dose; (2) don’t spread the fertilizer if heavy rain is predicted; and (3) evenly distribute the fertilizer using a mechanical spreader at the lowest setting, going over the area two or three times.

Organic fertilizers and synthetic fertilizers are not the same.

Organic fertilizers are less concentrated, but have longer lasting benefits because they gradually release nutrients.  Synthetic fertilizers are more concentrated which makes it is easier to over fertilize, burning the plant, and potentially harming soil organisms.  Synthetic fertilizers also tend to be more water-soluble, leaching out of the soil faster and potentially polluting our water resources. Organic fertilizers offer an additional benefit of recycling waste that would otherwise contribute to pollution.

Alternative Fertilizer Choices Including Organic Options

Conventional fertilizer is made mainly from phosphorus, a natural element already found in most soils. Though, phosphorous is natural and already in soil, adding additional phosphorus to soil is usually unnecessary and sometimes even harmful to the environment. In many cases, people put far too much fertilizer on their lawns. The excess phosphorous disrupts their garden’s natural ecosystem balance. Causing certain plants to swell and dominate unnaturally just like plants on steroids.

Organic lawn care compared to contemporary intensive lawn care is much healthier for the yard the environment and in many cases to one’s family. There are almost an infinite number of fertilizer variations that can be used to supply the nutrients recommended by your soil test.  The following information will help to fine tune fertilizer program or make substitutions.

Alternatives for 10:10:10 (N/P/K):

1 lb. of 10-10-10

                        Equals 5 lbs. of dried, aged chicken manure

                        Equals 10 lbs. of composted cow manure

                        Equals 30-40 lbs. of fresh horse and cow manure

                        Equals 2 lbs. of fishmeal

Nitrogen alternatives

3 lbs. of ammonium nitrate OR

2 lbs. of urea OR

5 lbs. of ammonium sulfate

                        Equals 8 lbs. of blood meal

                        Equals 13 lbs. of soybean extract

Potash alternatives

1 lb. of, muriate of potash

                        Equals 2 lbs. of potassium sulfate

                        Equals 7 lbs. of green compost

Phosphate alternatives

1 lb. of super treble phosphate

                        Equals 4 lbs. of steamed bone meal

                        Equals 2 lbs. of rock phosphate

Natural organic materials are variable in nutrient content from different samples, therefore, the quantities listed above are approximate. 

References:

• (http://www.landscape-and-garden.com/Garden-Soil/fertilizer-types.aspx)
• (http://www.climateethics.org/fertilizerimpacts)
• (http://organicgardens.suite101.com)
• (http://www.greencapes.org/) 

·         (http://www.fao.org/docrep) 

• (http://pmep.cce.cornell.edu) 
• (http://www.amazon.com/fertilizers) 

Industrial Revolution: A Blessing or A Curse?

Advantages Vs Disadvantages of Industrial Revolution.


The Scientific Revolution of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries was vital for rise of industrial revolution. Industrial revolution refers to the time period from 18^th to 19^th century, where major advances in the industrial processes had a great effect on socio-economic and cultural conditions of the world. It began in the United Kingdom, and then subsequently spread throughout Europe, North America and eventually in the whole world.

If we compare the advantages and disadvantages of industrial revolution, one can find that this revolution had more positive affects then its negative implications. The Industrial Revolution marks a major turning point in human history. During this, almost every aspect of daily life was influenced in some way. Most notable advancement was in socioeconomic aspects of life. For example the average income and population showed sustained growth. The world's average per capita income increased over 10 times, while the world's population increased over 6-fold.

Industrial revolution was considered as a new era of commercial activity which strengthened the socioeconomic conditions of lifestyle. There was a drastic change from usage of manual labor towards utilization of machine based manufacturing processes. It started with the mechanization of the industries and the development of iron-making techniques. The developments in the field of metallurgy led to the production of wrought iron, a much better quality of iron. Further advances brought the age of Steel. These developments in the production of iron and steel had a profound impact on machinery. The development of all-metal machine tools in the first two decades of the 19th century facilitated the manufacture of more production of machines for manufacturing in other industries. Railroads, canals, bridges and roads resulted in faster mode of transportation which further revolutionized travel for both people and goods.

 The introduction of steam power fueled by coal, utilization of hydro power and powered machinery caused the dramatic increases in production capacity. The effects spread, eventually affecting most of the world, a process that continues as industrialization. The First Industrial Revolution, which began in the 18th century, merged into the Second Industrial Revolution around 1850, when technological and economic progress gained momentum with the development of steam-powered ships, railways, internal combustion engine and electrical power generation.  

Industrial revolution caused an increased shift in every aspect of life, but it had an immense effect on the human condition as well. One of prominent negative feature of industrial revolution was urbanization. A shift of occupation from agricultural practices to industrial work, led to a sharp increase in city populations, which resulted in the obstruction of developments in infrastructure, sanitation, city planning, law and order situation etc. As more and more people shifted to cities from rural areas the number of unemployed increased, which resulted in a pressing issue of homelessness and social isolation. Thus, while industrial revolution brought an unparalleled development and progress in trade and production, it worsened human life particularly in cities. But these issues caused by industrial revolution can be overlooked when compared with the magnificent developments brought about by this revolution.

So in a nutshell, if we put side by side the pros and cons of industrial revolution, it can be deduced that the advantages of industrial revolution of eighteen and nineteen century over weighs its disadvantages. The industrialization process has benefit the mankind in many ways but now is the time when this process should be done with strict following of environmental rules and polices

Freshwater Crisis

A Clean Water Crisis

The water you drink today has likely been around in one form or another since dinosaurs roamed the Earth, hundreds of millions of years ago.

While the amount of freshwater on the planet has remained fairly constant over time—continually recycled through the atmosphere and back into our cups—the population has exploded. This means that every year competition for a clean, copious supply of water for drinking, cooking, bathing, and sustaining life intensifies.

Water scarcity is an abstract concept to many and a stark reality for others. It is the result of myriad environmental, political, economic, and social forces.

Freshwater makes up a very small fraction of all water on the planet. While nearly 70 percent of the world is covered by water, only 2.5 percent of it is fresh. The rest is saline and ocean-based. Even then, just 1 percent of our freshwater is easily accessible, with much of it trapped in glaciers and snowfields. In essence, only 0.007 percent of the planet's water is available to fuel and feed its 6.8 billion people.

Due to geography, climate, engineering, regulation, and competition for resources, some regions seem relatively flush with freshwater, while others face drought and debilitating pollution. In much of the developing world, clean water is either hard to come by or a commodity that requires laborious work or significant currency to obtain.

Water Is Life

Wherever they are, people need water to survive. Not only is the human body 60 percent water, the resource is also essential for producing food, clothing, and computers, moving our waste stream, and keeping us and the environment healthy.

Unfortunately, humans have proved to be inefficient water users. (The average hamburger takes 2,400 liters, or 630 gallons, of water to produce, and many water-intensive crops, such as cotton, are grown in arid regions.)

According to the United Nations, water use has grown at more than twice the rate of population increase in the last century. By 2025, an estimated 1.8 billion people will live in areas plagued by water scarcity, with two-thirds of the world's population living in water-stressed regions as a result of use, growth, and climate change.

The challenge we face now is how to effectively conserve, manage, and distribute the water we have. National Geographic's Freshwater Web site encourages you to explore the local stories and global trends defining the world's water crisis. Learn where freshwater resources exist; how they are used; and how climate, technology, policy, and people play a role in both creating obstacles and finding solutions. Peruse the site to learn how you can make a difference by reducing your water footprint and getting involved with local and global water conservation and advocacy efforts.

WATER SCARCITY & IT’S REMEDIAL MEASURES

1. INTRODUCTION

Water is an essential element for the survival of all life. Unfortunately, while Pakistan is blessed with adequate surface and groundwater resources, rapid population growth, urbanization and unsustainable water consumption practices have placed immense stress on the quality as well as the quantity of water resources in the country. Deterioration in water quality and contamination of lakes, rivers and groundwater aquifers has resulted in increased waterborne diseases and other health impacts.

In Pakistan, water remains a critical resource for sustained well-being of its citizens.

The water shortages and increasing competition for multiple uses of water has adversely affected the quality of water, consequently, water pollution has become a serious problem in Pakistan. It is now established that most of the reported health problems are directly or indirectly related to polluted water. Water is one resource that cannot be generated it can only be preserved. Farsighted nations try to conserve each every drop of water available to them because they are aware of the fact that if this commodity is not prudently preserved and used, the human survival itself would be jeopardized and future wars would be fought for its possession and control. The only manner to conserve this resource known to man so far is to construct dams.

1.1 BACKGROUND

Water resources of the Pakistan are diminishing and there is very little scope of future water resources development. Unlike most of the developing countries, Pakistan consumes up to 98% of its fresh water resources for agriculture, however in future, the non-agricultural water requirements will increase its share depending mainly upon the population, leaving less water for agriculture. Presently, the water use efficiencies in irrigated agricultural areas are among the lowest in the world, which creates a lot of potential for water savings provided the utilization of available resources is made with wise management. The basis for such management is the proper estimation of the future availabilities from different resources and their requirements by different competitors. Fresh water is globally a scarce commodity. The optimum utilization of water resources is utmost importance because the world as a whole is suffering from vast water shortages. Pakistan is presently faced with the situation that all its developed water resources are inadequate to meet the irrigation and other water requirements, and there are no prospects of augmenting the water availability in the near future (PWP, 2001).

Continuous population growth with limited land and water resources has put enormous pressure on the economy of Pakistan. The water resources of Pakistan are 172.7 BCM, and are characterized by a great variation. Per capita water availability in Pakistan has decreased from 5,000 cubic meters per annum in 1951 to 1,100. The principal source of drinking water for the majority of people in Pakistan is groundwater. About 80% of the Punjab has fresh groundwater, but in Sindh, less than 30% of groundwater is fresh. In NWFP, increasing abstraction has resulted in wells nowreaching into saline layers, and much of Baluchistan has saline groundwater.

As per Government figures;

ü  The Punjab has the best rural water supply amongst the provinces. It is stated that only 7 % of the rural population depends on a dug well or a river, canal or stream.

ü  In Sindh, some 24% of the rural population depends on these sources.

ü  The rural water supply situation in NWFP and Baluchistan is worse; about 46% and 72% respectively of the rural population depend on water from a dug well or from a river/canal/stream.

There is clear evidence that groundwater in the country is being over-exploited, yet tens of thousands of additional wells are being put into service every year. There is an urgent need to develop policies and approaches for bringing water withdrawal into balance with recharge.

A national water quality study was carried out by the Pakistan Council for Research in Water Resources (PCRWR) in 2001. In the first phase of the program, covering 21 cities, all samples from four cities and half the samples from seventeen cities indicated bacteriological contamination.

According to the Pakistan Strategic Country Environmental Assessment Report 2006(SCEA 2006), per capita water availability in Pakistan has decreased from 5,000 in1951 to 1100 cubic meter per annum. The increasing gap between water supply and demand has led to severe water shortage in almost all sectors.As per Ministry of Environment, Draft State of the Environment Report 2005 (SOE 2005), Pakistan stated a population growth rate of 1.9% in 2004. The projected figures for 2010 and 2025 have reached 173 million and 221 million respectively.These estimates suggest that the country will slip below the limit of 1000 cubic meters of water per capita per year from 2010 onwards. The situation could get worse in areas situated outside the Indus basin where the annual average is already below 1000m3 per head (SOE 2005).Pakistan is already one of the most water-stressed countries in the world, a situationwhich is going to degrade into outright water scarcity (WB).

Here the existing status of water quality is being presented:

2. CURRENT SITUATION / ISSUES OF WATER IN PAKISTAN

2.1. WATER AVAILABILITY The stress on water resources of the country is from multiple sources. Rapid urbanization,increased industrial activity and dependence of the agricultural sector on chemicals and fertilizers have led to water pollution. Deterioration in water quality and contamination of lakes, rivers and groundwater aquifers has, therefore, resulted in increased water borne diseases and negative impacts on human health.

Water availability on a per capita basis has been declining at an alarming rate. It has been decreased from about 5,000 cubic meters per capita in 1951 to about 1,100 cubic meters currently, which is just above the internationally recognized scarcity rate.

It is projected that water availability will be less than 700 cubic meters per capita by 2025 (Pak-SCEA 2006).The principal source of drinking water for the majority in Pakistan is groundwater.

Most of the rural areas and many major cities rely on it, although some cities such asIslamabad, Karachi, Hyderabad etc., get water from a number of other sources.About 80% of Punjab has fresh groundwater, with some saline water in the south and in desert areas. There is also some evidence of high fluoride or arsenic content locally in Punjab. A number of locations have also been contaminated by industrial wastewater discharges. In Sindh, less than 30% of groundwater is fresh. Much of theprovince is underlain by highly brackish water and some instances of elevated fluoride levels. In NWFP, increasing abstraction has resulted in wells now reaching into saline layers, and much of Balochistan also has saline groundwater (Pak-SCEA2006).

As per government figures, Punjab has the best rural water supply amongst the provinces. The vast majority of the rural population has either piped water or water from a hand pump or motor pump. It is stated that only 7 % of the rural population depends on a dug well or a river, canal or stream. The situation in Sindh is considerably worse: some 24% of the rural population depend on these sources. The situation in rural Sindh also appears to have deteriorated. The rural water supply situation in NWFP is worse still, and is worst of all in Balochistan. In these twoprovinces, 46% and 72% of the rural population, respectively, depend on water from a dug well or from a river/canal/stream (SOE 2005).

Over 60% of the population gets their drinking water from hand or motor pumps, with the figure in rural areas being over 70%. This figure is lower in Sindh, where thegroundwater quality is generally saline and anestimated 24% of the rural population getswater from surface water or dug wells. Inalmost all urban centres, groundwaterquantity and quality has deteriorated to theextent that the availability of good quality rawwater has become a serious issue. Overabstraction has also resulted in declininggroundwater levels (Pak-SCEA 2006).

Uncontrolled extraction of groundwater and extended dry periods has also caused itsdepletion and drying up of some of the sources. A study in Kirther shows that thewater table has dropped by 3 meters per year on average. The drying up of wells has important social consequences, particularly on the women and children responsiblefor water collection. In Islamabad, the drop has been 50 feet between 1986 and 2001while in Lahore the drop has been about 20 feet between 1993 and 2001. Estimatesshow that without an artificial recharging, groundwater in the sub basin of Quettawould be exhausted by 2016. (SOE 2005)

It is important to note that although, there is a clear evidence that groundwater isbeing over-exploited, yet tens of thousands of additional wells are being put intoservice every year. Pakistan has now entered an era in which laissez-faire becomesan enemy rather than a friend.

There is an urgent need to develop policies andapproaches for bringing water withdrawals into balance with recharge.

Sincemuch groundwater recharge in the Indus Basin is from canals, this requires anintegrated approach to surface and groundwater. There is little evidence thatgovernment and/or donors have re-engineered their capacity and funding to deal withthis great challenge. The delay is fatal in this situation, because the longer it takes todevelop such actions, the greater would become the depth of the groundwater table, and the higher would be the costs of the “equilibrium” solution. (WB, CWRAS 2005)

Per Capita Water Availability
Year Population (million)	Per Capita Availability (m3)
1951	34 5300
1961	46 3950
1971	65 2700
1981	84 2100
1991	115 1600
2000	148 1200
2013	207 850
2025	267 659

Source: Draft State of Environment Report 2005

The water shortage in the agriculture sector is another serious issue. As per SOE2005, the shortage has been estimated at 29% for the year 2010 and 33% for 2025.

In addition, uncontrolled harvesting of groundwater for irrigation purposes has alsoled to severe environmental problems. Today groundwater contributes a mere 48%of the water available. The construction of private wells for irrigation has also beenpromoted through a policy of high subsidy on electricity cost. The hike in the cost ofelectricity in 1990s, and the development of new technologies have led to aconsiderable increase of diesel pumps whose numbers have grown 6 times over thelast 30 years. (SOE 2005)

3. WATER DEMAND/CONSUMPTION

According to the National Water Policy (NWP), at present, irrigation uses about 93%of the water currently utilized in Pakistan. The rest is used for supplies to urban andrural populations and industry. However, as mentioned earlier, Pakistan's populationis set to increase by 221 million by the year 2025, the percentage of water required, particularly for urban water supply, is set to increase dramatically. This will placefurther pressure on water resources which are already deficient in meeting demandsacross all sectors (NWP).

Pakistan’s Water Scenario
Year	2004	2025
Availability	104 MAF	104 MAF
Requirement(including drinking water)	115 MAF	135 MAF
Overall Shortfall	11 MAF	31 MAF

Source: Ten Year Perspective Development Plan 2001-11, Planning Commission

It is observed that the expanding imbalance between supply and demand has notonly led to water shortages but also initiated an unhealthy competition amongst endusers, which is ultimately causing environmental degradation in the form of persistentincrease in water logging in certain areas, decline of groundwater levels in otherareas, intrusion of saline water into fresh groundwater reservoirs, etc. (NWP).

4. WATER QUALITY

Domestic waste containing household effluent and human waste is either dischargeddirectly to a sewer system, a natural drain or water body, a nearby field or an internalseptic tank. It is estimated that only some 8% of urban wastewater is treated inmunicipal treatment plants. The treated wastewater generally flows into open drains, and there are no provisions for reuse of the treated wastewater for agriculture orother municipal uses.

 Table below shows ten large urban centres of the country, which produce more than 60% of the total urban wastewater including household,industrial and commercial wastewater. (WB-CWRAS Paper 3, 2005)

City	Urban Population (1998 Census)	Total Wastewater Produced (million m3/y)	% of Total	% Treated	Receiving Water Body
Lahore	5,143,495	287	12.5	0.01	River Ravi, irrigation canals, vegetable farms
Faisalabad	2,008,861	129	5.6	25.6	River Ravi, RiverChenab and vegetable farms
Gujranwala	1,132,509	71	3.1	-	SCARP drains, vegetable farms
Rawalpinidi	1,409,768	40	1.8	-	River Soan and vegetable farms
Sheikhupura	870,110	15	0.7	-	SCARP drains
Multan	1,197,384	66	2.9	-	River Chenab, irrigation canals and vegetable farms
Sialkot	713,552	19	0.8	-	River Ravi, irrigation canals and vegetable farms
Karachi	9,339,023	604	26.3	15.9	Arabian Sea
Hyderabad	1,166,894	51	2.2	34.0	River Indus, irrigation canals and SCARP drains
Peshawar	982,816	52	2.3	36.2	Kabul River
Other	19,475,588	967	41.8	0.7	-
Total Urban	43,440,000	2,301	100.0	7.7	-

Source: Master Plan for Urban Wastewater (Municipal and Industrial) Treatment Facilities in

Pakistan. Final Report, Lahore: Engineering, Planning and Management Consultants, 2002

Another important aspect is that there is verylittle separation of municipal wastewater fromindustrial effluent in Pakistan. Both flow directly into open drains, which then flow intonearby natural water bodies. There is noregular monitoring programme to assess thewater quality of the surface and groundwaterbodies. There is no surface water qualitystandard in Pakistan. A comparison of thequality of surface water with the effluentdischarge standard clearly demonstrates theextent of pollution in the water bodies due tothe discharge of industrial and municipal effluent. (WB-CWRAS Paper 3, 2005).There is also no regular monitoring of drinking water quality. A national water qualitystudy was carried out by the Pakistan Council for Research in Water Resources (PCRWR) in 2001. In the first phase of the programme, covering 21 cities, all samples from four cities, and half the samples from seventeen cities indicatedbacteriological contamination. In addition, arsenic above the WHO limit of 10 ppbwas found in some samples collected from eight cities. The same study alsoindicated how the uncontrolled discharge of industrial effluent has affected surfaceand groundwater, identifying the presence of lead, chromium and cyanide ingroundwater samples from industrial areas of Karachi, and finding the same metals in the Malir and Lyari rivers flowing through Karachi and discharging into the ArabianSea. A second PCRWR study was launched in 2004, and preliminary results indicateno appreciable improvement, while a separate study reported that in Sindh almost95% of shallow groundwater supplies are bacteriologically contaminated (Pak-SECA2006).

Water samples collected from Karachi harbour have also revealed the presence oftrace metals in concentrations far exceeding any other major harbour in the World.

About 5.6 million tons of fertilizer and 70 thousand tons of pesticides (GoP, 2003) are consumed in the country every year. Pesticide use is increasing annuallyat a rate of about 6%. Pesticides, mostly insecticides, sprayed on the crops mix withthe irrigation water, which leaches through the soil and enters groundwater aquifers.In 107 samples of groundwater collected from various locations in the countrybetween 1988 and 2000, 31 samples were found to have contamination of pesticidesbeyond FAO/WHO safety limits. A pilot project was undertaken in 1990-91 inSamundari, Faisalabad District, over an area of 1,000 km2, to look into the extent ofgroundwater contamination by agrochemicals. In an analysis of ten groundwatersamples drawn from a depth of 10-15 m, seven were contaminated with one or morepesticides (PCRWR, 1991). The study concluded that the contamination had reachedonly the shallow aquifers; however, there were evidences that it was graduallyreaching the deeper aquifers as well. As there has been a four-fold increase in theuse of pesticide use in the country since 1990, the contamination levels are likely tohave increased significantly (WB-CWRAS Paper 3, 2005).

In addition to municipal and industrial effluents, contamination of groundwater byarsenic is also becoming a serious problem. In Sindh and the Punjab, approximately 36% of the population is exposed to a level of contamination higher than 10ppb and 16% is exposed to contamination of 50ppb. (SOE 2005)Due to impact of water shortage and accompanying pollution, many wild animals, plants, aquatic species, birds and other forms of flora and fauna are also affected.The biodiversity in Sindh is particularly at risk as biotic potential of many species is starting to be diminished, and they may be lost forever if the environmental devastation due to water shortage is not reversed or properly controlled.(SOE 2006)

5. MAJOR WATER SECTORS IN PAKISTAN

5.1. INDUSTRIAL SECTOR

The pressures on water resources due to industrial growth are quite significant and have increased water pollution problems. According to the SOE 2005, only a marginal number of industries conduct environmental assessments (about 5 % of national industries). The national quality standards specifying permissible limits of wastewater are seldom adhered to. In Pakistan, only 1% of wastewater is treated by industries before being discharged directly into rivers and drains. For example in NWFP, 80,000 m3 of industrial effluents containing a very high level of pollutants are discharged every day into the river Kabul causing observable incidence of skin diseases, decrease in agricultural productivity and decrease in fish population (SOE 2005).

Major industrial contributors to water pollution in Pakistan are petrochemicals, paper and pulp, food processing, tanneries, refineries, textile and sugar industries. The industrial sub-sectors of paper and board, sugar, textile, cement, polyester yarn, and fertilizer produce more than 80% of the total industrial effluents (WB-CWRAS Paper 3, 2005)

The problem of industrial water pollution remained uncontrolled because there have been little or no incentives for Industry to treat their effluents. Although, rules and regulations exist but lack of implementation and absence of proper monitoring and policing has resulted in problem persisting (WB-CWRAS Paper 8, 2005). Throughout Pakistan, the industrial approach towards environment is the same; In Lahore, only 3 out of some 100 industries using hazardous chemicals treat their wastewater. Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) levels in water courses receiving these wastes are as high as 800mg/l and Mercury levels over 5 mg/l. Consequently hundreds of tons of fish are killed causing a loss of millions of rupees. (WB-CWRASPaper 8, 2005)

5.2. AGRICULTURE SECTOR

According to the information provided in the National Water Policy (NWP), the irrigation network of Pakistan is the largest infrastructural enterprise accounting for approximately $ 300 billion of investment (at current rates) and contributing nearly 25% to the country's GDP. Irrigated agriculture provides 90 % of food and fibre requirements while "barani" (rain fed) area contributes the remaining 10 % (NWP).At present, irrigation uses about 93% of the water currently utilized in Pakistan. The rest is used for supplies to urban and rural populations and industry (NWP).

In addition to the study of PCRWR on groundwater contamination due to pesticides and fertilizers mentioned earlier under section 2.3, another study by WAPDA on the situation of pollutants in the drainage system of Pakistan was conducted in April 2004. The study revealed that in Punjab all drains were carrying saline and sodic waters due to high values of Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) and Residual Sodium Carbonate (RSC) or Sodium Absorption Ratio (SAR) and all of them also had very high values for Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) and Biological Oxygen Demand(BOD). The data for Sindh and Balochistan showed that majority of drains had very high saline waters due to high values of TDS and in Shahdad Kot drain this reached as high as 13,187ppm during 2002. In addition, the COD values were higher than the permissible limits and at some sampling points these even surpassed the high levels recorded for Punjab and NWFP (SOE 2005).The contribution of agricultural drainage to the overall contamination of the water resources exists but is marginal compared to the industrial and domestic pollution.For example, in Sindh, the pollution of water due to irrigation is only 3.21% of the total pollution (SOE 2005).

5.3. MUNICIPAL SECTOR

Most surface water pollution is associated with urban centres. Typically, nullahs and storm water drains collect and carry untreated sewage which then flows into streams, rivers and irrigation canals, resulting in widespread bacteriological and other contamination. It has been estimated that around 2,000 million gallons of sewage is being discharged to surface water bodies every day (Pak-SCEA 2006).Although there are some sewerage collection systems, typically discharging to the nearest water body, collection levels are estimated to be no greater than 50% nationally (less than 20% in many rural areas), with only about 10% of collected sewage effectively treated. Although treatment facilities exist in about a dozen major cities, in some cases these have been built without the completion of associated sewerage networks, and the plants are often either under loaded or abandoned. In effect, only a few percent of the total wastewater generated receives adequate treatment before discharge to the waterways. (Pak-SCEA 2006)

6. WATER SCARCITY & DESERTIFICATION

As desertification takes its toll, water crises are expected tocontinue raising ethnic and political tensions in drylands, contributing to conflicts where water resources straddle ordelineate country borders. In some countries, landdegradation has led to massive internal migrations, forcingwhole villages to flee their farms for already-overcrowdedcities. 50 million people are at risk of displacement in thenext 10 years if desertification is not checked (UNU 2007).

Implementing sustainable land and water managementpolicies would help to overcome the challenge of theseincreasingly extreme situations.

Water scarcity leaves a lasting impact on soil: Desertification is land degradation in dry lands, resultingfrom various factors including climatic variations and humanactivities. Water scarcity is the long-term imbalancebetween available water resources and demands.

Increasing occurrences of water scarcity, whether natural orhuman-induced, serve to trigger and exacerbate the effectsof desertification through direct long-term impacts on landand soil quality, soil structure, organic matter content andultimately on soil moisture levels. The direct physical effectsof land degradation include the drying up of freshwaterresources, an increased frequency of drought and sand anddust storms, and a greater occurrence of flooding due toinadequate drainage or poor irrigation practices. Should thistrend continue, it would bring about a sharp decline in soilnutrients, accelerating the loss of vegetation cover. This leadsin turn to further land and water degradation, such aspollution of surface and groundwater, siltation, salinization, and alkalization of soils.

Poor and unsustainable land management techniques also worsen the situation. Over cultivation, overgrazing anddeforestation put great strain on water resources byreducing fertile topsoil and vegetation cover, and lead togreater dependence on irrigated cropping. Observedeffects include reduced flow in rivers that feed large lakessuch as the Aral Sea and Lake Chad, leading to thealarmingly fast retreat of the shorelines of these naturalreservoirs in Central Asia and Northern Africa.

(Fig: Breaking the downward spiral of Desertification through Sustainable Land and Water Resources Management; SLWRM)

The Virtuous Circle for SLWRM improvement starts from

Land condition improvement

7. REMEDIAL MEASURES FOR WATER SCARCITY

According to UNCCD (2009), desertification, land degradation and drought have negative impact on the availability, quantity and quality of water resources that result in water scarcity. The challenges and threats of water scarcity to dry land populations are set to increase in magnitude and scope. As the world’s population has swollen to well over 6 billion people, some countries have already reached the limits of their water resources. With the existing climate change scenario, almost half the world’s population will be living in areas of high water stress by 2030, including between 75 million and 250 million people in Africa. In addition, water scarcity in some arid and semi-arid places will displace between 24 million and 700 million people (UNCCD, 2009).

8. WATER REMEDIATION AND WASTEWATER TREATMENT SYSTEMS

According to Boari, et al. (1997), continental natural waters are the classical source for supplies of drinking water. Spring water is the best drinking water because of the natural conditions which guarantee hygiene standards and generally preclude any specific treatment. Also groundwater usually has good chemo-physical characteristics, because bacteria and viruses are eliminated by filtration with the movement of the water as are other polluting substances. It is impossible to specify a precise method for treating surface waters because of the various qualities of waters that exist. Nevertheless, a series of conventional processes can be identified; such as screening, straining, oxidation, clari-flocculation filtration. These can be followed by specific stages for the removal of particular pollutants (Boari, et al., 1997). The typical composition of natural water is given in table, but this composition varies in different areas of the world (Berbenni, P. 1991).

Table 1: Typical composition of natural waters (Berbenni, 1991)

8.1. Natural Water Treatment Systems

One of the most common and efficient methods for removing micro-pollutants is the process of absorption on activated carbon. This is often combined with an ozonization process. Stripping processes are used to remove volatile micro-pollutants such as solvents, chloride, ammonia and sulphide. Natural lakes can be an excellent source of drinking water supplies if the chemical, physical and biological treatment systems naturally formed in the water mass keep the water clean (Masotti, 1996). This depends on the hydraulic and geomorphologic characteristics of the catchment-basin (nature of the soil, the conveyance of solids etc.); on the type of vegetation and fauna composing the ecosystem of basin and its surroundings; and finally a point not to be overlooked - on the anthropogenic activity which degrades the basin. The treatment used for water of good quality is generally that illustrated in Fig 1a.

Fig 1a: Systems for treatment of lake and reservoir waters (Masotti, 1996).

Waters collected in natural lakes or artificial reservoirs where eutrophic processes take place are characterized by low quality. Under these conditions organic material is suspended in high concentrations, and the growth of certain species of algae which thrive in particular conditions, obstructs the process of rendering the water potable (Masotti, 1996). The sediment at the bottom provides condition in which iron and manganese are readily made soluble. If intervention to clean the waters of the lake does not have lasting effect a more complex treatment system must be designed, such as that described in Fig 1b.

Fig 1b: Systems for treatment of lake and reservoir waters (Masotti, 1996).

8.2. Urban Wastewater Treatment Systems

Systems commonly used for treatment of urban wastewater are constituted of primary treatment by settling, a biological second stage, and a tertiary treatment by disinfection, in some cases following a filtration process. Primary sedimentation is most efficient in removing coarse solids.

Biological processes are used to convert the finely dissolved organic materials in wastewater into flocculent settle able solids that can be removed in sedimentation tanks.

These processes are employed in conjunction with physical and chemical processes and they are most efficient in removing organic substances that are either soluble or in the colloidal size range. Disinfection is generally operated by chlorination with Cl, or NaOC1 (Metcalf and Eddy, 1998). The main systems for removal of solids, organic matter and pathogens are the activated sludge process, trickling filters, aerated lagoons, high-rate oxidation ponds, stabilization ponds (fig 2a) or aerated lagoons (fig 2b) are most often used for small installations (Masotti, 1996).

Fig 2: Flow-sheet f or stabilization pond (a) and aerated lagoon (b) processes (Masotti, 1996).

8.2.1 Activated Sludge Process, or one of its many modifications, is most often used for larger installations. In some cases trickling filters are applied. Several processes have been used for activated sludge. The most important are (Metcalf and Eddy, 1998): tapered aeration process; modified aeration process; continuous-flow stirred tank; step aeration process; contact stabilization process; extended aeration process; oxidation ditch; carrousel system; high-rate aeration process etc.

Fig 3 - Typical simplified flowsheets for biological processes used for urban wastewater treatment: (a) activated sludge, (b)trickling filter (Masotti, 1996).

8.2.2. Contact-Stabilization process was developed to take advantage of the absorptive properties of activated sludge. It has been postulated that BOD removal occurs in two stages. The first is the absorptive phase, which requires 20 to 40 min; during this phase most of the colloidal, finely suspended, and dissolved organics are absorbed in the activated sludge. The second phase, oxidation, then occurs, and the absorbed organics assimilated metabolically (Metcalf and Eddy, 1998).

In the contact-stabilization process, the two phases are separated and occur in different tanks. The settled wastewater is mixed with return sludge and aerated in a contact tank for 30 to 90 minutes. The sludge is then separated from the treated effluent by sedimentation, and the returned sludge is aerated for 3 to 6 h in a sludge aeration tank. The flowsheet is shown in Fig 4 The aeration volume requirements are approximately 50 percent of those of a conventional or tapered-aeration plant. It is thus often possible to double the plant capacity of an existing conventional plant (Metcalf and Eddy, 1998).

Fig. 4 - Flowsheet for contact stabilization activated sludge process (Metcalf and Eddy, 1998).

8.2.3. Extended-Aeration process operates in the endogenous respiration phase of the growth curve, which necessitates a relatively low organic loading and long aeration time. Thus it is generally applicable only to small treatment plants with capacities of less than 3800 m3/d. This process is used extensively for prefabricated package plants that are provided for the treatment of wastes from housing subdivisions, isolated institutions, small community and schools. Although separate sludge wasting generally is not provided, it may be added where the discharge of the excess solids is objectionable.

Aerobic digestion of the excess solids, followed by dewatering on open sand beds, usually follows separate sludge wasting. Primary sedimentation is omitted to simplify the sludge treatment and disposal. The oxidation ditch is essentially extended aeration process. It is used in many small European towns and has found a variety of different applications in the United States. A schematic representation of an oxidation ditch with intermittent operations is shown in Fig 5 (Canziani, 1990). It consists of a ring-shaped channel about t1o 1.5 m deep. An aeration rotor, consisting of a modified Kessener brush, is placed across the ditch to provide aeration and recirculation. The screened wastewater enters the ditch, is aerated by the rotor. The cycle consists of closing the inlet valve and aerating the wastewater, stopping the rotor and letting the content settle, and operating both inlet and outlet valves thereby, allowing the incoming wastewater to displace an equal volume of clarified effluent. Modifications can be made for continuous operation.

Fig 5: Oxidation ditch activated sludge process with intermittent operation (Canziani, 1990).

9. RECLAIMING WATER FROM MUNICIPAL EFFLUENTS

9.1. Direct Utilization of Municipal Wastewater:  

The most suitable use of municipal wastewater treatment plants effluents is agricultural irrigation. The accomplishment of this produces numerous advantages but requires a severe analysis of the effects on the people, soils and crops, and definition of the proper treatment process to get required quality level. The main advantages of utilizing effluents for irrigation uses consist in the fact that many of the substances present in wastewater can be used as nutrients for crops, and would otherwise probably contaminate the water body receiver, and there is the additional advantage that less chemical fertilizers are needed (Lopez and Liberti, 1992).

The salinity level of wastewater and the organic and inorganic toxic compound content are usually not high enough to prevent its use for irrigation purposes. Nevertheless, it is advisable to check on the presence of these substances. Wastewater must be refined so that the concentration of suspended matter is brought down to a suitable level and its pathogenic load eliminated. Simpler and less costly alternative systems have been tested, which eliminate clari-flocculation, but include the coagulation and flocculation and sedimentation (Lopez and Liberti, 1992).

The disinfection processes and the removal of suspended solids are especially important as many pathogenic agents are closely attached to solid particles or to colloidal agglomerates in suspension. It is essential that suspended solids are efficiently removed in order to ensure that the wastewater has been satisfactorily disinfected. The removal of phosphorus, when required, implies additional operating costs as the precipitation and disposal of chemical sludge is necessary (Lopez and Liberti, 1992).

The clari-flocculation stage, achieved through the processes of coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation, permits the removal of solids, principally of the organic nature, which are present in the secondary effluent. Filtration, following sedimentation or an alternative method, is an indispensable stage as it renders the wastewater limpid and therefore perfectly suitable for disinfection. Moreover, this is an essential condition for the destruction of viruses and parasites, which are extremely resistant to disinfectants. Filtration is most commonly achieved by using homogeneous, single-layered sand filters or the dual-media type filters, containing a mixture of sand and anthracite, which also permit the removal of soluble organic compounds, at moderate, rather than high, operating costs (Lopez and Libert, 1992).

The advantage to industry of using urban wastewater should be determined in the light of a number of certain aspects such as:the distance between the industry and the source to wastewater supply; any cleaning treatment at the expense of the industry; the absence of alternative water supplies; prospects of increasing productivity in the future without the possibility of having access to further supplies (Lopez and Libert, 1992).

9.2. Groundwater Reclamation from Municipal Wastewater is obtained by recharging of ground water. This process prevents depletion taking place by recovering water resource which otherwise would be lost. The recharging of ground water with refined wastewater could become a reality in many arid zones. Nevertheless, the viability of its application must be analyzed in the context of each locality, which may be quite different from the localities, where refining and recharging plants have already been installed; and moreover the possibility of growth from the reuse of refined sewage should be analyzed (Treweek, 1999).

Recharging methods can be applied to both superficial and deep waters; natural water can be used as well as purified wastewater provided that all the necessary precautions have been taken and thorough checks carried out. If purified wastewater is used, the processes should focus mainly on the removal of suspended solids, the destruction of toxic solutes and on the microbiological load.Fig 6shows the refining process for purified civil waste and the recharging of groundwater in the Dan region, which involves addition by infiltration in sandy ground which is partially muddy with layers of clay (Treweek, 1999). In Fig 7, the Cedar Creek (United States) plant where infiltration is operated in ground consisting of a mixture of sand and gravel with clay deposits in the first layer, and diffusion is used to reach deeper layers of extremely low permeability.

Fig 6: Lay-out of refining process for civil waste and recharge of groundwater at theDan plan tin Israel (Treweek, 1999).

Fig 7: Lay-out of Cedar Creek plant for recharge of groundwater by infiltration and aspersion of treated urban wastewater (Treweek, 1999).

Globally, water scarcity already affects four out of every 10 people. The situation is getting worse due to population growth, urbanization and increased domestic and industrial water use. Most countries in the Near East and North Africa suffer from acute water scarcity, as do countries such as Mexico, Pakistan, South Africa, and large parts of China and India (CWC,1988; NCIWRDP, 1999; Garg and Hassan, 2007). Now a major international issue, climate change is expected to account for global increase in water scarcity. Countries that already suffer from water shortages will be hit hardest. Significantly, there will be major increases in water scarcity even if the water impacts of climate change prove to be neutral or even enhancing of the world’s hydrological budget (IPCC 2001, 2007).

10. SUGGESTED REMEDIAL MEASURES

• There is an impressive array of specific management measures, both structural and non-structural, that water managers already use routinely to accommodate present day climate variability. These will also serve towards adaptation to any impacts of enhanced climate variability and climate change.
• Basin-wise assessment of per-capita water requirement using integrated approach, in which water quality and population growth must be accounted for.
• Recycling and re-use of waste water in a big way.
• Water harvesting and water conservation from agricultural and rural areas as national policy.
• Inter-basin water transfer after proper feasibility analysis of all the basins and surrounding areas including groundwater potential.
• Proper urban planning to reduce concentrated development, which increases pollution, water demand etc., which is difficult to cope up.
• Public awareness program on impact of climate change in water resources, coping mechanism and adaptation strategies for the stakeholders, public etc (Ramakar, K., Sharma, D. and Neupane, B., 2008).

11. CONCLUSIONS, POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS AND THE WAY FORWARD

The issues of water quality and quantity in Pakistan discussed are considered grave in nature. A number of factors need to be highlighted and addressed in order to improve, protect and maintain the quality of freshwater resources of the country. These factors include;

• Government Priorities: The treatment of sewage and industrial effluents seems to be a low priority with the Government and there is a need to bring provision of clean water back as a top priority.
• Rules and Regulations: Unregulated groundwater abstraction is the main cause of water depletion. Unfortunately there are no clear guidelines, rules and regulations for groundwater abstraction. In additions, surprisingly, there are no surface water classification standards in the country so such rules and regulations have to be established at the earliest, for stopping groundwater abstractions.
• Water Policy: Although relevant policies like

ü  National Environment Policy,

ü  National Water Policy (Draft),

ü  National Drinking Water Policy (Draft) etc.

Are in place, there is no clear strategy devised so far to implement them. A clear and practical strategy needs to be defined to implement these policies.

• Better water management practices - reuse, conservation etc. with financial constraints and a water resource problem across the country, water conservation, re-use, and industrial water recycling are areas that are considered crucial.Better management practices should be used in agricultural sector such as switching from high delta crops to those crops requiring less water inputs etc.
• There should be an incentive based public campaign emphasizing the need to conserve water at all levels. In households, leaking taps, tank overflows, irresponsible use of potable water for washing cars and watering lawns and plants must account for a significant proportion of non revenue water. Water metering is a must but with an intermittent supply of water it is of little use (PCRWR, 2005)

In conclusion, even though water is one of the most important requirements for life and Pakistan is a semi-arid country, water use practices in the country fall far short of the required minimum for water conservation and water quality. In simple terms, Pakistan’s water is drying up, and what little remains is heavily polluted. We need to make sure that our practices change if Pakistan is to survive the next few decades.

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REFERENCES/BIBLOGRAPHY

WATER SCARCITY

Ø  ‘National Water Policy (Draft)’ (2005), Ministry of Environment, Government of Pakistan

Ø  ‘Pakistan Environmental Protection Act, 1997

Ø  ‘Pakistan Water Sector Strategy’ (2002), Ministry of Water and Power, Office of the Chief Engineering  Advisor/ Chairman federal Flood Commission, vol. 5

Ø  Dixon, T. (1999). Environment, Scarcity and Violence. Princeton: Princeton University Press, p. 48.

Ø  <http://www.asiawaterwire.net/node/243>

Ø  <http://www.pakistan.gov.pk/ministries/environment-ministry/media/mtdf.htm>

Ø  <http://www.usaid.gov/stories/pakistan/fp_pakistan_water.html>

Ø  MTDF (2005), Medium Term Development Framework, Planning Commission, Government of Pakistan

Ø  National Environmental Policy (2005), Ministry of Environment, Government of Pakistan

Ø  NIH  (2004)Survey by the ‘Network’, National Institute of Health

Ø  PCRWR (2005), ‘Water Quality Status’ 3^rd Report, Pakistan Council of Research in Water Resources

Ø  Shahid, K. (2005), ‘Drinking Water and Sanitation Sector Review of Policies and Performance and Future Options for Improving Service Delivery Country Water Resources Assistance Strategy’, paper 8

Ø  The World Bank (2005), ‘Pakistan Country Water Resources Assistance Strategy Water Economy: Running Dry’.

Ø  Wolfe, S. and Brooks, D. (2003). Water scarcity: An alternative view and its implications for policy and capacity building. Natural Resources Forum 27, p. 99-107.

Ø  Zakaria, W. (2005), ‘Water and Environmental Sustainability Country Water Resources Assistance Strategy’ paper 3

REMEDIAL MEASURES

Ø  Berbenni P. (1991). ‘Evolution of Tertiary Treatment Requirements; California’, Water Environment Technology, vol.4, No. 2

Ø  Boari, G., Mancini, I and Trulli, E. (1997), Technologies for water and wastewater treatment, Options Mediterranean’s, seriesA, No. 37

Ø  Canziani R., (1990), Application of Reverse Osmosis to Wastewater Treatment, Journal WPCF,vol. 46, pp. 301-311

Ø  CWC (1988), Water resources of India, Publication No. 30/88, Central Water Commission, New Delhi

Ø  Garg, N.K. and Hassan, Q. (2007), ‘Alarming scarcity of water in India’, Current Science, Vol. 3, No. 7, pp. 932-941

Ø  Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) (2001), Third Assessment Report (TAR): Synthesis Report (Summary for Policymakers) 34 p., The Scientific Basis; Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability (IAV) pp. 1032 <http://www.ipcc.ch>

Ø  Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) (2007), Fourth Assessment Report <http://www.ipcc.ch>.

Ø  Lopez, A. and Liberti, L. (1992), New Technologies for Municipal Wastewater Treatment. Water Science and Technology, vol. 18, No. 12, pp. 41-53

Ø  Masotti L. (1996), Integrated Biological Treatment for High Strenght Agro-Industries Wastewaters, In Proceedings of 4^th International Conference on Ecosystem for Wastewater Treatment, Yuancun (China) 6-10 November.

Ø  Metcalf and Eddy, Inc. (1998), Wastewater Engineering: Treatment, Disposal, Reuse., McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Ltd., New Delhi, 2^nd edition, 6th reprint.

Ø  NCIWRDP (1999), Integrated water resources development: A plan for action, Report of the National Commission for Integrated Water Resources Development Plan, Ministry of Water Resources, New Delhi.

Ø  PCRWR (2005), ‘Water Quality Status’ 3^rd Report by Pakistan Council of Research in Water Resource

Ø  Ramakar, K., Sharma, D. and Neupane, B. (2008), Traditional and Innovative Technique for Supporting the Identification and Remediation of Water Scarcity Issues and Global Change Impact on Water Resources- An Indian Scenario.

Ø  Treweek G.P., (1999). Pre-treatment processes for groundwater recharge. In Artificial Recharge of Groundwater, edited by T. Asano, Butterworth Publishers, Boston.

United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (2009), ‘Water scarcity and desertification’, A Thematic factsheet, series 2, <http://www.unccd.int